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Nature and Environment Natural disasters Green House Earth on the Universe |
Friday, October 9, 2020
Class IX Contents
Thursday, September 17, 2020
Grafting
Grafting is a technique that joins two
plants into one. In general, a wound is created on one of the plants, and the
other is inserted into that wound so each plant's tissues can grow together.
Instead of cross-pollinating two plants
and producing a hybrid seed, grafted plants use the roots and the bottom portion of one plant
(rootstock) and attach it to a tender shoot (scion) from the top portion of
another plant. This is often done with trees and shrubs to combine the best
characteristics of the two plants.
The Rootstock or stock: The lower plant portion used in grafting is called the rootstock. This is usually a healthy root system and some portion of the stem. You've probably seen a nubby bump at the base of rose bushes or fruit trees, like the one in the photo. This is where the graft was made; the graft union. Everything below the bump is rootstock.
Whip Grafting : Whip
Grafting is one of the oldest methods of asexual plant propagation known. It is
the predominant propagation method used on apples and is widely used on pear.
Although most grapes are grown from cuttings in this country, whip grafting is
the standard when they are propagated. Whip grafting has been the primary
method employed in propagating pecan nursery stock in the southeastern United
States. This technique is also used to some extent in the Southeast and west to
Louisiana for top-working larger pecan trees on the above-ground portions.
Since successful whip grafting is closely correlated to the presence of high
humidity, this method has not been used widely in the drier sections of
Oklahoma, New Mexico and Texas. A major strong point for whip grafting nursery
stock is the smooth and straight trees that are produced by this method.
Cleft grafting:A cleft graft is one of the grafts used for topworking new cultivars on existing trees.
It is used for relatively small branches and done when the
stock is dormant and cracks easily.
Two scions are inserted on either side of the branch and the
cambium lined up along the outer edge.
When the tool is released, the pressure of the closure holds
the scions in place.
Once the graft takes, only one of the scions will be
retained.
Sometimes the other scion is left for a while as a nurse
branch
Monday, September 14, 2020
Glandular System
The system which comprises all glands of a body is called glandular system. When we see sour food a fluid is generated inside mouth, why? The salivary gland produce salivary juice. When dust enters into eye it starts tearing because of production of tear from tear gland.
Gland: those organs which produce enzyme or hormone are called glands. Glands are divided into two types exocrine and endocrine.
1. Exocrine gland: The ducted glands are called exocrine glands. The juice produced by exocrine glands are called enzymes. The enzyme produced by them is mixed to the blood which is helpful in digestion. Tear gland, sweat gland, salivary gland etc are example of exocrine glands.
2. Endocrine gland: The ductless gland that produce hormones are called endocrine glands. As hormones excite cells and other glands they are called chemical messengers. Imbalance of hormones in body causes imbalance in growth and developments.
Difference between exocrine and endocrine glands
Exocrine Gland |
Endocrine Gland |
1. It is ducted |
1. It is ductless |
2. It produces enzyme |
2. It produces hormone |
3. It sends enzyme to destination via duct |
3. It sends hormones to blood directly |
4. Enzyme is important for digestion, respiration and other life process |
4. Hormone is important for growth and development |
Pituitary Gland: The pituitary
gland is a small
pea-sized gland that plays a
major role in regulating vital body functions and general wellbeing. It is
referred to as the body's 'master gland' because it
controls the activity of most other hormone-secreting glands. The hormones produced by this gland are called stimulating
hormone and growth hormone. The major function of these hormones is physical and
psychological development.
Parathyroid
gland: Parathyroid glands
are four small glands of the endocrine system which regulate the calcium in our
bodies. Parathyroid glands are located in the neck behind the thyroid where
they continuously monitor and regulate blood calcium levels. The hormone
produced by this gland is called parathermone or parathyroid hormone. It regulates
calcium on blood and bones. Excess of this hormone causes tumor and kidney
stone while lack of this causes lack of calcium in blood. Due to this muscles
get contracted and the condition is called tetany.
Adrenal gland: The adrenal glands are small glands located on top of each kidney. They produce hormones that we can't live without, including sex hormones and cortisol. Cortisol helps us respond to stress and has many other important functions. Another hormone produced by adrenal gland is adrenalin. Access of adrenalin causes increase of blood pressure and lack of this causes decrease in blood pressure level, decrease of sugar level and dizziness.
Pancreas: The pancreas is an organ located in the abdomen. It plays an essential role in converting the food we eat into fuel for the body's cells. The pancreas has two main functions: an exocrine function that helps in digestion and an endocrine function that regulates blood sugar. So it is also called mixed gland or dual gland as it produces enzyme and hormone both. Pancreas produces Insulin and glucagon hormones. Insulin regulates sugar level in blood. Lack of insulin increases sugar level which is called diabetes.
Gonads: A gonad, sex
gland, or reproductive
glandis a mixed gland that produces the gametes (sex cells) and sex hormones of an organism. In the female of the species the reproductive cells are the egg
cells, and in the male the reproductive cells are the sperm. The male gonad, the testicle, produces sperm in the form of spermatozoa. The female gonad, the ovary, produces egg cells. Both of these gametes are haploid cells.
Sunday, September 13, 2020
Peripheral Nervous System
The peripheral nervous system (PNS) consists of all the nerves branching out of the brain and spinal cord. If you imagine the Central Nervous System as the main highway, then the Peripheral Nervous System forms all the connecting secondary roads. These allow electrical impulses to travel to and from the furthest regions, or periphery, of the human body. The PNS is built almost entirely from nerves. There are two main types; spinal nerves and cranial nerves. Functionally, the PNS can be divided into the autonomic and somatic nervous systems. Both of these can be further subdivided; the former into sympathetic and parasympathetic arms and the latter into sensory and motor divisions.
Cranial nerve tissue: The nerve tissues starting from brain and
again ending to brain are called cranial nerve tissues. There are 12 pairs of
cranial nerves emerging from brain which collect information from the organs of
head like eye, ear, tongue, nose etc.
Spinal nerve tissue: The nerve tissues
emerging from spinal cord and spread to different parts of body are called
spinal nerves. There are 31 pairs of spinal nerves emerging from spinal cord
and spread to different parts of body. They carry information and emotions from
different parts of body to brain and brain to different parts of body.
Autonomic nervous system: The autonomic nervous system is a control system that acts
largely unconsciously and regulates bodily functions, such as the heart rate,
digestion, respiratory rate, pupillary response, urination, and sexual arousal.
Autonomic nervous system is divided to two types
1. Sympathetic: this increases the rate of heartbeat, blood
pressure, breathing and function of stomach, intestine and urinary system.
2. Parasympathetic: It is opposite of sympathetic which normalizes the events mentioned above in general conditions such as heart beat, blood pressure, urination rate etc.
Reflex Action and Reflex Arc
When you
touch a hot object or when a pin pricks your finger, what is your
immediate reaction? Of course, you remove your hand away from the source
of pain, either the hot object or the pin. In situations like these, your
reactions are always immediate, involuntary and sudden. They happen without
much of a thinking process. In scientific terms, this action is called the
reflex action. Here the spinal cord has a major role to play. The reflex
arc shows the pathway through which the reflex action occurs.
The whole mechanism of reflex action occurs in such a
fashion that there is no conscious control of the brain. Stimulation occurs through the peripheral nervous system and the response to this peripheral
nerve stimulation is involuntary. In a reflex action, the spinal cord along
with the brain stem is responsible for the reflex movements.
A
few examples of reflex action are:
·
When light acts as
a stimulus, the pupil of the eye changes in size.
·
Sudden jerky withdrawal of
hand or leg when pricked by a pin.
·
Coughing or sneezing, because
of irritants in the nasal passages.
·
Knees jerk in response to a
blow or someone stamping the leg.
·
The sudden removal of the
hand from a sharp object.
·
Sudden blinking when an
insect comes very near to the eyes.
The
whole process of reflex action involves some important components. They are
receptor organs, sensory neurons, nerve center, associated neurons, motor
neurons and effector neurons.
The
receptor organs perceive the stimuli. They are situated on the sense organs.
The afferent neurons or the sensory neurons carry the stimuli from receptors to
the spinal cord. The ganglion of the spinal cord has the sensory neurons.
The
spinal cord is the nerve center, where synaptic connections are formed. The
associated neurons are present in the spinal cord. The ventral horn of spinal
cord has the motor neurons. Effector organs are the glands and muscles that
behave in response to the stimuli.
The cell body contains the nucleus
and cytoplasm. The axon extends from the cell body and often gives rise to many
smaller branches before ending at nerve terminals.
Dendrites extend
from the neuron cell body and receive messages from other neurons. Synapses are
the contact points where one neuron communicates with another. The
dendrites are covered with synapses formed by the ends of axons from
other neurons.
When neurons receive or send messages, they transmit electrical impulses along their axons, which can range in length from a tiny fraction of an inch (or centimeter) to three feet (about one meter) or more. Many axons are covered with a layered myelin sheath, which accelerates the transmission of electrical signals along the axon. This sheath is made by specialized cells called glia. In the brain, the glia that make the sheath are called oligodendrocytes, and in the peripheral nervous system, they are known as Schwann cells. The brain contains at least ten times more glia than neurons. Glia perform many jobs. Researchers have known for a while that glia transport nutrients to neurons, clean up brain debris, digest parts of dead neurons, and help hold neurons in place. Current research is uncovering important new roles for glia in brain function.
Nervous System
The system of organs and cells that make organism able to detect changes within themselves and their environment is called nervous system. Changes in the external environment include those of light, temperature, sound, motion, taste and odour, while changes in the internal environment include those in the position of the head and limbs as well as in the internal organs. Once detected, these internal and external changes must be analyzed and acted upon in order to survive. Human nervoous system is divided to three major parts, they are,
- Central nervous system
- Peripheral nervous system
- Autonomic nervous system
Brain: Brain is the largest part of central nervous system situated safe inside skull. Brain is covered by three layered membrane called meninges that help protect the brain. The three layers are called duramater, piamater and arachnoid. Duramater is attached to inner skull, piamater is attached to brain and space between arachnoid and piamater is filled with a fluid called cerebrospinal fluid. This fluid protects brain from shocks. Brain is divided into three major parts
a. Cerebrum: cerebrum occupies about 80% of brain volume. It is spread from frontal, parietal to occipital zone. It is divided to left and right hemisphere lobes. The left and right hemispheres are divided from top side by deep fissure. Outer part of cerebrum is made up of grey matter and inner part from white matter. Major function of cerebrum are
- To detect odor
- To control speech
- Record memory and events
- Hearing control
- Detect sensation like touch, pain, pressure, temperature etc
- Thought control
- Analysis
- Emotions
- Anger control
- Future telling
Shock or wound on cerebrum causes person to coma.
b. Cerebellum: Cerebellum also called small brain is situated behind cerebrum and above medulla oblongata. It is divided to two hemispheres on the size of lemon each. It is also formed by grey matter and white matter. The major functions of cerebellum are
- Plays the role of body balance
- Decides the tone of muscle
- Controls voluntary movements
c. Medulla oblongata: it is situated below cerebellum and at the top of spinal cord. It is smallest part of
brain. It is cylindrical in shape. Shock or wound on this may cause death of person. It is also made by gray matter and white matter. The major functions of medulla oblongata are
- Control of sneezing, swallow of food
- Control of vomiting and to cough
- Control of breathing
- Control contraction and relaxation of blood vessels
- Contraction and relaxation of digestive canal
- secretion of digestive juice, secretion of hormones etc
Spinal cord: spinal cord is a long nervous tissue which starts from lower part of medulla oblongata to the end of lumbar vertebrae. Its outer part is made up of white matter and inner part from grey matter. It is covered by meninges. If spinal cord gets shock or injured the lower part below wound remain paralyzed which is called spinal injury or spinal paralysis. Main functions of spinal cord are
- It is the centre of reflex action. It shows instant reaction to change in outer environment
- Establishes relationship between different parts of body and brain
Tuesday, September 8, 2020
Alcohol and Glycerol
Alcohol: The compound formed by displacing one hydrogen of alkane by hydroxide is called alcohol. General formula of alcohol is CnH2n+1. Alcohols are classified by number of hydroxide present in compound. Monohydric alcohol if one hydroxide is present, dihydric alcohol if two hydroxides are present and trihydric if three hydroxides are present.
Methyl alcohol: It is a monohydric alcohol formed by displacing one hydrogen in methane by one hydroxide. It is also called methanol.
CH4 - H /+ OH → CH3OH
Uses of Methyl alcohol:
- It is widely used to make methylated spirit
- It is used as solvent for different colors
- It is used to make synthetic fibers
- It is used to make colors and perfumes
- It is used to make medicines
- It is used to make formaldehyde and Bakelite
- It is use to disinfect syringes in hospitals
- Used as fuel in spirit lamp
- Used for dry clean
Ethyl alcohol: it is a monohydric alcohol also known as ethanol. It is formed by displacing one hydrogen of alkane by a hydride ion(functional group)
C2H6 –H/+ OH → C2H5OH
Uses of ethyl alcohol:
- It is used to make alcoholic beverages like whisky, vodka, wine and beer
- Used as fuel in spirit lamp
- It is used to make alcohol thermometer
- Used to clean syringes in hospital
- Used to preserve biological specimen
- Used to make sanitizers
- It is used as solvent for resin, fat and oil
- It is used to make transparent soaps
- It is used to make polythene, terylene etc
Glycerol: It is a trihydric alcohol also known as glycerin. It is colorless with sweet taste and edible matter. Large amount of glycerol is obtained from soap industries as byproduct. It is highly soluble in water.
Uses of glycerol:
- Used preserve lips and skin from dryness
- It is used as sweetening agents
- It is used to make high quality soap, lotion, saving cream and cosmetics
- It is used to make printing ink
- It is used to preserve tobacco and fruits
Some Hydrocarbons and Uses
Methane: Methane is the simplest aliphatic hydrocarbon in nature. It is found in marshy place so it is sometime called marsh gas. It is also found on upper layer of mineral oil. It is colorless, odorless and tasteless gas. It is insoluble in water but soluble in ether and alcohol.
Uses of methane:
- It is used as biogas in villages for cooking
- Used as fuel in industries
- Liquid methane is uses as rocket fuel
- It is used in industrial production of hydrogen gas
- It is used to make various organic compound like chloroform, carbon tetrachloride etc
- It is used to make methyl alcohol
- It is used on production of carbon black which is further used in making printing ink
Ethane: Ethane is 2nd member of alkane group. It is found with methane in mineral oil, coal mine and natural gas. It is colorless, odorless and tasteless gas. Ethane is insoluble in water but soluble in ether and alcohol.
Uses of ethane
- It is used in welding purpose
- It is used make carbonic compounds like ethyl chloride, synthetic ethyl alcohol, nitroethane etc
Propane: Propane is third member of alkane group. It is found with methane in mineral oil, coal mine and natural gas. It is colorless, odorless and tasteless gas. Ethane is insoluble in water but soluble in ether and alcohol.
Uses of Propane
Butane: Butane is the fourth member of alkane group. It is found in mineral oil, and natural gas. It is colorless, odorless and tasteless gas. Ethane is insoluble in water but soluble in ether and alcohol.
Uses of butane:
- It is used as LPG gas by mixing with methane
- It is used make synthetic rubber
- it is used as portable lighter fuel
Monday, September 7, 2020
Hydrocarbons
Organic compound, any of a large class of chemical compounds in which one or more atoms of carbon are covalently linked to atoms of other elements, most commonly hydrogen, oxygen, or nitrogen. The few carbon-containing compounds not classified as organic include carbides, carbonates, bicarbonate and cyanides.
Hydrocarbon: The
compounds formed by the combination of carbon and hydrogen are called
hydrocarbon. The major source of hydrocarbon compound is mineral oil.
Hydrocarbons are classified to two main categories according the bond between
carbon and carbon atom.
1.Saturated
hydrocarbons: if there is only one bond between carbon and carbon atom then
such type of compounds are called saturated hydrocarbons. The meaning of
saturated means nothing can be added further there. They are so stable in
nature and hence are also called paraffins. They are also called alkanes. There
general formula is CnH2n+2. Examples are methane, ethane, propane, butane
etc.
2. Unsaturated
hydrocarbon: If there is more than one covalent bond between carbon and
carbon atom in hydrocarbon then they are called unsaturated hydrocarbon. It
means some element can be added there. They are unstable in
nature. Unsaturated hydrocarbons are further classified into two
types, alkene and alkyne.
Alkene: If there is double bond between carbon and
carbon atom, such hydrocarbons are called alkenes. They are also called
olefines and their general formula is CnH2n, where value
of n starts from 2.
Alkynes are the hydrocarbon compounds having at least one
triple bond between carbon carbon atom. They are also called acetylenes. They
are represented by general formula CnH2n-2 where value of n starts from 2.
Homologous series: the group of hydrocarbon compound which can be expressed by single formula is called homologous series. For example, methane, ethane, and propane are part of a homologous series. The only difference among these molecules is that they have different numbers of CH2 groups. Each member of a homologous series is called a homologue, which can also be spelled ''homolog.'' For example, methane and ethane are homologues and belong to the same homologous series. They differ from each other by one CH2 group. The formula of methane is CH4 and the formula of ethane is C2 H6.
Alkyl radical: The group of atoms(or radical) formed by
removing one hydrogen from alkane is called alkyl radical. For example removing
one hydrogen from methane(CH4) creates CH3+ radical
and so on.
CH4 - H → CH3+
C2H6 - H → C2H5+
Functional group is a group of atoms responsible for the characteristic behavior of the class of compounds in which the group occurs, as the hydroxyl group in alcohols, oxygen in ether etc.
Gold
The symbol of gold is Au which is driven from the Latin word Aurum. Its atomic number is 79 and atomic weight is 197.2. Its electronic configuration is as shown below
Shell |
K |
L |
M |
N |
|
P |
Number of electrons |
2 |
8 |
18 |
32 |
18 |
1 |
Orbitals |
1s2 |
2s22p6 |
3s23p63d10 |
4S24p64d104f14 |
5s25p65d10 |
6s1 |
Position of Gold in periodic table: Gold has one valence electron and its valency is 1 or 3. It falls in group IB of periodic table and on 6th period under d-block elements. It can make aurous ion(Au+) by loosing 1 electron or auric ion(Au+++) by loosing three electrons.
Occurrence: Gold is generally found in free state with quartz or river sand. Its major ore is calverite(AuTe2)
Physical properties of Gold:
- It is soft and shiny yellow colored metal
- Its specific gravity is 19.3
- Its melting point is 1063oC and boiling point is 2530oC
- It is very less reactive metal
- It is very good conductor of heat and electricity
Uses of Gold:
- It is used to make ornaments
- It is used to make gold coins
- It is used to make gold medals
- It is used to make decorative materials
- It is used to make statues of god and goddess
- It is used to make gold leaf electroscope
- It is used to make medicines
- It is used to make photographic chemicals
- It is used in gold plating
Silver
The symbol of silver ig Ag which is driven from the Latin word Argentum which means shiny and lustrous. Its atomic number is 47 and atomic weight is 107.88. Its electronic configuration is as shown below
Shell |
K |
L |
M |
N |
O |
Number of electrons |
2 |
8 |
18 |
18 |
1 |
Orbitals |
1s2 |
2s22p6 |
3s23p63d10 |
4S24p64d10 |
5s1 |
Position of silver in periodic table: Silver has one electron on its valence cell. Its position is in Group IB of periodic table and falls on 5th period of d-block element. Its valency is 1. By loosing 1 electron it forms Ag+ ion.
Occurrence: Silver is found in nature on pure as well as in the form of different ores. Major ores of silver are, argentite, silver glance, horn silver, silver copper glance etc. The major ore is argentite among them.
Physical properties of Silver:
- It is shiny white metal with attractive luster
- Its specific gravity is 10.5
- Silver melts on 960oC and boils at 1955oC
- It is very good conductor of heat and electricity
- It is malleable ductile in nature
Uses of silver:
- It is used to make ornaments
- It is used to make silver coins
- It is used to make decorative materials
- It is used to polish mirrors
- It is used to make silver amalgams
- Silver oxide used to make calculator batteries
- It is used to make silver salts
- It is used in electroplating
- It is used to make expensive utensils
- Silver bromides are widely used as photography chemicals
Copper
The symbol of copper is Cu which is driven from Latin name cuprum. Its atomic number is 29, atomic weight is 63.57 and electronic configuration is as shown below.
Shell |
K |
L |
M |
N |
Number of electrons |
2 |
8 |
18 |
1 |
Orbitals |
1s2 |
2s22p6 |
3s23p63d10 |
4S1 |
Position of copper in periodic table: Copper has one electron on its valence cell.its position is in Group IB of periodic table and falls on 4th period of d-block element. Its valency is 1 or 2. By loosing 1 electron it forms cuprous ion(Cu+) or by loosing 2 electrons forms cupric ion(Cu++).
Occurrence: copper is found in nature on pure state as well as in the form of different ores. Major ores of copper are, copper pyrite, coppel glance, chalcopyrite, chalcocite, cuprite etc. most of the copper is produced from copper pyrite.
Physical properties of copper:
- It is brown red shiny metal
- It is very good conductor of heat and electricity
- Its specific gravity is 8.95
- Its melting point is 1083oC and boiling point is 2350oC
- It is soft, malleable and ductile in nature
Uses of copper
- It is used to make coins
- It is used to make utensils
- It is used to make electrical wires and coils
- It is used for copper plating on other metals
- It is used to make positive electrodes on many electrolysis
- It is used to make calorimeter
- It is used to make many alloys like brass and bronze
- It is used to make different chemicals like copper sulphate
- It is used to make medicines and pesticides